Technological advances in sensor miniaturisation, embedded electronics, and wireless communication have facilitated the development of low-cost air quality mon-itoring systems. These systems generally integrate optical particle counters for partic-ulate matter detection and electrochemical sensors for gaseous pollutants such as ni-trogen dioxide, carbon monoxide, and ozone (Castell et al., 2017; Lewis & Edwards, 2016). Low-cost sensors are characterised by enhanced portability, reduced energy re-quirements, and scalability, making them suitable for dense spatial deployment. As a result, mobile monitoring platforms—such as vehicle-mounted systems, bicycle-based units, and portable sensor networks—have gained increasing attention in recent years. These mobile systems enable high-resolution spatial mapping of pollutant concentra-tions and allow for the identification of local emission hotspots that may not be detected by fixed monitoring networks (Hasenfratz et al., 2015; Apte et al., 2017). The integration of Global Positioning System (GPS) modules and real-time data acquisition systems further enhances the spatial representativeness of mobile moni-toring platforms. Such approaches are particularly relevant in rapidly urbanising re-gions where traditional monitoring infrastructure remains limited.

Recent progress in making sensors smaller, improving embedded electronics, and enhancing wireless communication has enabled the creation of affordable air quality monitoring systems. These systems typically combine optical particle counters to detect particulate matter with electrochemical sensors that measure gaseous pollutants like nitrogen dioxide, carbon monoxide, and ozone (Castell et al., 2017; Lewis & Edwards, 2016). These affordable sensors offer improved portability, lower power consumption, and the ability to scale up operations, which makes them well-suited for widespread deployment across many locations. Consequently, mobile monitoring approaches have become increasingly popular in recent years, including systems mounted on vehicles, bicycles, and portable sensor networks. Mobile systems provide detailed spatial mapping of pollutant levels and can detect local pollution hotspots that fixed monitoring networks might miss (Hasenfratz et al., 2015; Apte et al., 2017). Adding Global Positioning System (GPS) modules and real-time data collection capabilities makes mobile monitoring platforms even more spatially representative. These methods prove especially valuable in rapidly growing urban areas where conventional monitoring infrastructure is still inadequate.